Biological Psychology Final Notes

Chapter 2- Darwin was the first to mention how evolutionoccurs. Humans belong to the primate family cognise as hominins. Characteristics that evolved to per ricochet unitary service but were co-opted to perform an early(a) function be c exclusivelyed exaptations. each group of three consecutive nucleotide bases along the strand of messenger ribonucleic acid is called a codon, which instructs the ribosome to add amino acids to the protein being constructed. Subsequent to the nature-nuture issue, a bet on line of thought surrounding the biology of behavior is the dualistic physiological-psychological debate.Courtship displays argon thought to be classic beca go for they premote the evolution of new species. Amphibians evolved from lean fishes and later into reptiles, the first verteb green goddesses to lay shell-covered eggs and to be covered with modify scales. In most species mating is indiscriminate or promiscuous however, on that storey ar some species in which males and females create mating bonds with members of the opposite sex. Genes that obtain the information necessary for the synthesis of proteins be enhancer genes. Not all DNA is tack in the nucleus of the electric cellphone some is found in mitochondria.Monoallelic expression occurs when one of the two alleles of a gene is inactivated, collectible to an unidentified epigenetic mechanism, and the other allele is expressed. Descartes claimed the mind is make up of the soul, body, and spirit. RNA is like DNA except it contains the base uracil instead of thymine. Epigenetic mechanisms are thought to be the mearns by which a small number of genes are able to orchestrate the development of human complexity. The mate-bonding pattern in which bonds are formed in the midst of one male and one female is known as monogamy. Evolution is not always adaptive.Incidental non-adaptive byproducts are called spandrels. Mitochondria are talent generation structures that are located in the cytoplasm of every cell. individually chromosome has double stranded molecules known as DNA and each is a sequence of nucleotide bases. Courtship displays are thought to be important because the premote the evolution of new species. Chapter 3- CNS is made up of the consciousness and spinal anesthesia anesthesia cord. PNS is located outside the skull and spine and serves to crop info to the CNS and claim signals out of the CNS. PNS Somatic Nervous System Afferent restiveness (sensory) efferent nerve nerves (motor).Autonomic Nervous System- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and both nerves are efferent. Sympathetic thoracic and lumbar, fight or flight, second dot neurons are far from the target organ. Parasympathetic cranial and sacral, rest and restore, second fix up neurons are near the target organ. All nerves are efferent. Sympathetic and parasympathetic generally have opposite effects. Two peg neural paths, neuron exiting the CNS synapses on a second stage neuron before the target organ. Protective mechanisms of the CNS deck out ( wizardry & spinal cord), meninges (protective membranes), cerebrospinal fluid, and blood brain barrier.CNS encased in bone and covered by three meninges dura mater- tough outer(prenominal) membrane, arachnoid membrane web like, pia mater adheres to CNS surface. Ventricles & spinal cord contain spinal fluid, cushion against mechanical shock, manner of speaking of hormones, delivery of nutrients. intellectual Vascular system delivery of nutrients (glucose, thiamine), delivery of hormones (communication), thermoregulation (maintain temperature), blood brain barrier. Two Types of Cells in Nervous System neurons transmit electrical and chemical signals, contrastive types of neurons.Glia different types, different functions. Neurons specialized cells for the reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals AND legion(predicate) sizes and shapes. Neurons-messengers-release of chemical that forms c ommunication with other neurons. Semi-permeable membranes uncharged molecules move freely across membrane, a few charged molecules (sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride) move through channels, lipids (fat molecules) are key components of the membrane, protein molecules are the key components of ion channels.Glial cells (forgotten cells) glial cells support neurons, recent attest for glial communication and modulatory effects of glia on neural communication. Types of glial cells oligodendrocytes- extensions rich in myelin create myelin sheaths in CNS. Schwann cells- ssimilar to function of oligodendrocytes but in PNS, can guide axonal regeneration. Astrocytes- largest glia, star shaped, many functions. Microglia- involved in response to injury or disease. Radial glia- form temporary network to facilitate neural migration.Phagocytic microglia in the flat-mounted inner retina of the rat following transection of the optic nerve the neurons were axotomized and retrogradely label led with the fluorescent dye, Due to the membranophilic post of the dye, microglial cells became transcellularly stained after phagocytosis of 4Di-10ASP-labelled neuronal debris. Inside the phagocytes, incorporated membranes are stack away in phagosomes, which are detectable even years after the neuronal injury. Golgi stain allows for visualization of individual neurons and general shapes.Nissl stain selectively stains cell bodies permits quantification of cell bodies. Electron microscopy levels of neuronal structure. Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques Anterograde(forward)- ghost to where axons project away from an celestial sphere. Retrograde ( sanctionward)- tracing from where axons are projecting into an area. contralateralopposite side. Ipsilateral same side. Gray matter inner component, principally cell bodies. White matter outer area, in the first place myelinated. Forebrain Cerebral hemispheres & Cortex, Hippocampus, Basal ganglia, Thalamus, Hypothalamus.Midbrain Tectum, Tegmentum, Superior Colliculus, Inferior colliculus, Substantia nigra. Hindbrain Pons, Cerebellum, Medulla axons. Chapter 4 membrane potential difference in electrical charge (charged particles or ions) between inside and outside of cell. Resting membrane potential Resting membrane potential is intimately 70 mV, Potential inside of the neuron is 70 mV slight than that outside of the neuron, When difference in potential exists, the membrane is said to be polarized (carries a charge). Ions move in/out through ion-specific channels. Potassium (K+) and Chloride (Cl-) campaign readily.Sodium (Na+)-little free movement across membrane. Negatively charged proteins (A-) Synthesized within the neuron, prime primarily within the neuron, A-dont move at all, trapped inside. salad dressing of neurotransmitters to receptors causes changes in the electrical charge. Depolarizations (membrane potential less negative) result in excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Hyperpolarizat ions (membrane potential more negative) result in inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). Threshold of activation (-65 mV) must be reached near the axon hillock.Spatial summation Adding or combining individual signals (PSPs) happening at different places into one overall signal. profane summation Adding or combining individual signals (PSPs) happening at different times into one overall signal. Synthesis, Packaging, and Transport of Neurotransmitter Molecules- The chemical signal Neurotransmitter molecules diminished Synthesized in the terminal button and packaged in synaptic vesicles. bouffant Assembled in the cell body, packaged in vesicles, and then transported to the axon terminal.Major Events in Neurotransmission The arrival of an AP at the terminal opens voltage-activated Ca2+ channels, The entry of Ca2+ causes vesicles to fuse to the presynaptic membrane and be released into the synaptic cleft. Exocytosis the process of NT release. Glutamate Most prevalent excita tory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Astrocytes push through to communicate and to modulate neuronal aactivity. Chapter 15 Addicts are those who continue to use a medicine despite its adverse effects on health and social life . Most addictive do drugss target dopamine pathways and other NTs.Psychoactive drugs drugs that influence subjective experience and behavior by acting on the nervous system In order for a psychoactive drug to have an effect, it must get to the brain it must pass through the blood-brain barrier, Action of most drugs terminated by enzymes in the liver drug metabolism, Small amounts may also be excreted in urine, sweat, feces, breath, and mothers milk. Alcohol A depressant. Marijuana Cannabis sativa common hemp plant. medicinal Uses of Marijuana Treats nausea, Blocks seizures, Dilates bronchioles of asthmatics, Decreases severity of glaucoma.Reduces some forms of pain. Drugs influence availability of neurotransmitters. Agonist if drug mimics or enhances NT Antagonist if drug inhibits NT aactivity. Affinity if drug binds to a receptor. faculty its tendency to activate the receptor. Relapse priming doses (prefrontal pallium), drug associated cues (amygdala), and test (hypothalamic stress circuits). Chapter 5 MRI ? High resolution images. ? Constructed from measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms hand out when activated within a magnetic field. PET scan ?Provides images of brain aactivity ? Scan is an image of levels of radioaactivity in various parts of one even level of the brain ? A radiolabeled substance is administered prior to the scan. Chapter 6 flicker enters the centerfield through the pupil, whose size changes in response to changes in illumination. predisposition the ability to see when light is dim. Acuity the ability to see details. lens focuses light on the retina. Ciliary muscles alter the shape of the lens as needed. Accommodation the process of adjusting the lens to bring images into focus.Myopia nea rsightedness inability to bring distant objects into focus eyeball likewise long or cornea excessively curved focal point of light falls short of the retina. hypermetropia farsightedness inability to focus on near objects eyeball too short or lens too flat focal point of light falls beyond the retina. Presbyopia oldsightedness lens loses elasticity unavailing to refract light most people over 50. Convergence eyeball must turn slightly inward when objects are close. Binocular variation difference between the images on the two retinas.Light passes through ganglion and bipolar cell to visual receptors and then? Photoreceptors (rods and cones)? Horizontal cells? Bipolar cells? Amacrine cells? Retinal ganglion cells? Axons of the ganglion cells leave the back of the eye as the optic nerve. Cones Photopic (daytime) vision. High-acuity and color information in best lighting. Concentrated in the fovea. ? Rods Scotopic (nighttime) vision. High-sensitivity, allowing for low-acui ty vision in dim light, but lacks detail and color information. Found only in the periphery.Rods High convergence change magnitude sensitivity, decreased acuity. Cones Low convergence ? less sensitivity, increased acuity. Fovea naughty acuity area at center of retina. Optic nerve is made up of axons of ganglion cells. We continually scan the world with small and quick eye movements saccades. Transduction conversion of one form of energy to another. Receptive field The area of the visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulation to influence the firing of a given neuron. Most neurons in V1 are either ?Simple unfastened fields are rectangular with on and off regions, or all monocular ? Complex also rectangular, larger receptive fields, respond best to a particular stimulus anywhere in its receptive field and many are binocular. Chapter 7 Primary cortexinput mainly from thalamic relay nuclei Secondary Cortex input mainly from primary and lower-ranking cortex within the sensory system standoff Cortex input from more than one sensory system, usually from secondary sensory cortex. Sensation detecting a stimulus Perception taking into custody the stimulus.